Learning from our experiences based on what we have lived before is fundamental for survival. This allows the execution of increasingly adaptive behaviour patterns , and even predicting possible outcomes of our actions: for example, we learn to avoid certain stimuli and actively seek others because we have previously been able to link them to some kind of consequence.

Why we act as we do and how we have learned to do so is something that has intrigued humanity for centuries and has led to the exploration and investigation of the subject by different disciplines such as psychology, generating different currents and theories. Among these theoretical currents we can find behaviorism, for which the main basis and explanation of behavior is found in the capacity of association and in associative learning . It is about this concept that we are going to talk throughout this article.

The concept of associative learning

Associative learning is understood as the process by which human beings and other living beings establish a link or association between two or more phenomena, so that they learn and react to that relationship. This learning supposes a change in the behaviour of the subject that acquires it , to the point of anticipating that certain stimulations or actions will bring about the arrival of other stimuli or consequences.

For this to happen, there must be a certain amount of condensation, habituation or awareness of the relationship between the two elements, which in turn implies that they are repeatedly presented as being to some extent concurrent and contingent.

It is a concept especially worked by behaviorism, a paradigm of psychology that focused on the study of behavior as the only empirical and observable element of the psyche (leaving aside the role of the psychic apparatus itself in it) and that sought to provide an objective and scientific explanation of our behavior , being in fact the capacity of association one of its main bases.

Originally, behaviorism valued that associative learning depended only on the properties of the stimuli and how they were presented, with the learner being a totally passive subject who simply grasped the relationship.

However, as the years have gone by and new currents have developed such as cognitivism and cognitive-behaviour, the understanding of this phenomenon has included more and more cognitive variables specific to the subject, becoming a more active element in this type of learning.

In fact, it is currently considered that associative learning allows us to be able to make predictions and establish new strategies derived from the reception of information by it , establishing causal relationships based on repeated exposure to the stimuli. This is because we not only associate stimuli, but also ideas, concepts and thoughts in such a way that we can develop new knowledge even without having to undergo real stimulation.

Types of basic associative learning

Next we will see two of the main forms of associative learning, which although they do not explain the totality of learning, do serve as some of the bases of associative learning.

Classic conditioning

Classical or Pavlovian conditioning is one of the most basic but at the same time most fundamental types of associative learning that have been researched, with its study serving as a basis for further exploration of the phenomenon of association. In classical conditioning it is considered that the behaviour of human beings and other animals is derived from learning the relationship between different stimuli .

Specifically, we learn that two stimuli are related due to the perception that both happen in a contingent and close manner in space and time, observing repeatedly that the appearance or disappearance of one stimulus precedes or is related to the appearance or disappearance of another.

In this process, a stimulus capable of generating an unconditioned physiological response or unconditioned stimulus is paired or related to a neutral stimulus , so that as a joint presentation is produced, it is conditioned in such a way that it ends up generating a response that is equal or similar to that which would be generated by the unconditioned stimulus, which would be called a conditioned response.

This type of relationship is learned on the basis of repetition, although depending on the stimulus, its salience and how the relationship is presented, a faster or slower association may be generated. Likewise, the association can occur both at a positive stimulation level (we learn that things we like are related to neutral things) and aversive (painful stimuli are associated with other neutral ones, which end up generating fear).

For example, imagine that they bring us our favorite dish: its appearance (unconditional stimulus) makes us want to eat and we start salivating (unconditional response). However, if someone usually rings a bell shortly before food is brought to us, we will end up associating the idea that the bell is linked to food, which will eventually cause a stimulus that was initially indifferent to us (neutral stimulus) to have a value similar to that of food (the sound of the bell changes from being neutral to being a conditioned stimulus) and generate a reaction of, in this case, salivation (conditioned response).

Operating Conditioning

Another of the main types of associative learning is Skinner’s operant conditioning, which goes from associating mere stimuli to considering the existing association between the very emission or non-emission of a behaviour and the consequences that this has .

In this type of associative learning we find that the performance of a specific behavior or conduct has a series of consequences, which will alter the probability of such behavior reappearing due to the learned association. Thus, we can find cases of reinforcement (either positive or negative) or punishment (either positive or negative), which imply, respectively, the increase or decrease of the behaviour from the presence of certain consequences.

In positive reinforcement, the behavior leads to the appearance of an appetite stimulus, while in negative reinforcement, an aversive stimulus is eliminated or ceases to appear: in both cases the behavior is considered positive for the subject, which increases the probability of its appearance .

With regard to punishment: in positive punishment a consequence or aversive stimulus is applied or administered if the subject carries out the behaviour, while in negative punishment a stimulus or element that is positive or appetizing for the subject is eliminated or removed. In both cases the probability of repeating the behaviour decreases, since it has aversive consequences.

In addition, it should also be taken into account that the consequences may be present immediately or may be delayed, something that will also alter the probability of the appearance of the behaviour and that may be mediated by aspects such as the way in which the behaviour and the consequences have been presented or the sequencing of the behaviour (for example, if there is a contingency between both fixed or variable, or if the consequences appear each time the behaviour is carried out or during a specific time interval).

Learning by observation

Another type of learning that is partly based on partnership is learning by observation. In this case, starting from the previous conditionings, an association is made between what happens or is done by another person and us, being able to carry out an associative learning without having to experience directly the association of stimuli. Within this we can find for example the social learning or the imitation of models.

Bibliographic references:

  • Dickinson, A. (1980). Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Higueras, B. and Muñoz, J.J. (2012). Basic psychology. Manual CEDE de Preparación PIR, 08.
  • Rodrigo, T. and Prado, J. Associative learning and spatial learning: history of a line of research (1981-2001). In Vila, J.,Nieto, J. and Rosas, J.M. (2003). Contemporary research in associative learning. Studies in Spain and Mexico. Univesitas del lunar collection.