The learning difficulties (DA) include in their definition a heterogeneous set of alterations in reading, writing, calculation and general cognitive reasoning skills. These disorders are usually due to a dysfunction of the nervous system, which can continue throughout the life process.

Learning difficulties can be manifested simultaneously by problems in self-regulatory behaviour and social interaction , as well as by sensory deficits, mental retardation, severe emotional disorders or concomitant with external influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction, although it is true that AD cannot be causally derived from any of these).

Therefore, it is understood that there is a discrepancy between the real and expected performance according to the child’s age of maturity , which is why specialized attention is required to compensate for these difficulties presented by the student.

Specific Learning Disorder and DSM V

Currently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM V defines the diagnostic category of Specific Learning Disorder by distinguishing between reading, calculation and writing skills.

Among the diagnostic criteria, it should be noted that the subject must present an IQ within the average level with respect to his age group, the level determined in one of the three capacities previously indicated being significantly lower than the average of the population.

Causes of learning difficulties

There are many different causes that may lead to the manifestation of learning difficulties in the individual, although the main one derives from internal (neurobiological) factors of the subject such as organic deficits, aspects linked to chromosomal inheritance, problems related to biochemical or nutritional alterations or perceptive and/or motor cognitive deficits.

In a second category, we can differentiate the environmental causes linked to the particularities of the family and socio-cultural context that offer scarce opportunities for cognitive stimulation and limit the development of these capacities in the child.

On the other hand, the characteristics of the educational system to which the student is assigned may condition a certain level of internalization of basic learning; namely, the methodology of work and evaluation of the student body, the quality of teaching, the physical conditions and resources of the school, among others, may make substantial differences.

Finally, the origin of learning difficulties may be due to an inadequate adjustment between the individual characteristics of the student and the demands he or she receives from the educational context (as defended from the interactionist position). This adjustment or type of response offered by the student to a task depends on the interaction of two variables: the level of knowledge that the child possesses and the availability of strategies to solve the task. Thus, schoolchildren presenting DA usually possess the knowledge, but are not able to apply the appropriate strategies for successful task execution. This last proposal is the one that currently has the most theoretical support.

Influence of AD on child development

In line with that expressed above, a very relevant aspect is to understand the maturation, or biological growth of the child, as a dynamic disposition or condition that depends on the neurological, neuropsychological and psychological characteristics of the person, as well as the family and/or school environment where the development takes place.

The development in people with learning difficulties is characterized by a slower evolutionary pace . That is, we only speak of an alteration on a quantitative level, and not on a qualitative one, as occurs in developmental disorders. Early age differences between children with AD and children without AD can range from 2 to 4 years. Later these discrepancies decrease and it can be said that individuals with AD can reach an acceptable level of competence.

There are several environmental factors, and therefore modifiable, that contribute to the relief or aggravation of AD, such as: the richness and appropriateness of speech in the family context, high exposure to reading, the promotion of play and activities that favour the development of sustained attention, as well as those that facilitate individual decision-making and personal initiative.

Learning disabilities and behavioural disorders

Given the close relationship between the comorbidity of AD and certain behavioural disorders, it is often complex to determine which of these two manifestations motivates the other. Usually both co-occur simultaneously, as in the case of Attention Deficit Disorder (with Hyperactivity), where the complications presented by the child at the level of information processing and regulation of executive functions produce (or result from) difficulties in the acquisition of linguistic and arithmetic skills.

Numerous studies show that children and adolescents with learning difficulties have other emotional and/or behavioural problems associated with them to a considerable extent. Thus, AD is aggravated, leading to an even more significant deterioration in academic performance . The most frequent problems are observed in 70% of the male population and 50% of the female population, and refer to externalising behaviours such as attention deficits, hyperactivity and cognitive self-regulation, with antisocial, oppositional or aggressive behaviour being less common.

Some research defends the idea that the presence of isolated behavioural alterations does not necessarily motivate limitations in the acquisition of first learnings in children, although in other cases, where behavioural deviations are initiated at early ages, the interrelationship between both phenomena seems more evident.

Social functioning of children with learning difficulties

Difficulties in the area of social skills also show a strong correlation with the manifestation of AD in children and adolescents, with Kavale and Forness obtaining a percentage of around 75% of the cases in their research. At these ages, three are the most significant areas of social relations:

Social relationships with peers

As the child develops, in his or her aim to establish himself or herself as an independent individual with a defined “I” identity and increasingly detached from parental protection and care, this domain is the most influential and significant for the individual . At this stage, comparisons on one’s own physical and psychological characteristics with those of others, the level of popularity acquired or the perception of social support are determining factors.

When we talk about children or adolescents with learning difficulties, these influences become even more noticeable, since we start off with a disadvantage in terms of adaptive self-concept. Therefore, in cases of AD, it is more frequent that children feel either isolated or rejected . In the former, the motivation of the child should be strengthened so that he/she presents a greater predisposition for the acquisition of interpersonal skills, which help him/her to be more competent and allow him/her to better manage the contextual situations in which he/she interacts. In the second case, a previous work on behavioral self-control and emotional management must be done in order to modify the negative interaction dynamics that he is used to execute.

Social relations with teachers

In this area, a fundamental part of the type of social relations that the student establishes with the teaching staff is determined by the beliefs that the teacher presents with respect to the student in question.

Thus, the expectations of academic failure or success with respect to the student, the more or less favourable treatment received conditioned by the DA and the level of positive reinforcement administered after the child has achieved objectives will have a significant influence on a more or less positive teaching conception of the student’s personal competence.

Among the most relevant aspects that influence the difficulties in social interaction in students with AD, the following can be distinguished: a low level of competence in internalizing the cognitive strategies that they must apply in the face of certain contextual demands, a low level of ability in the natural organization of the strategies that allow them to achieve social objectives, a vision that is not very empathetic and is very focused on their own perspective, which prevents them from satisfactorily understanding interpersonal relations and what they imply, an insufficient capacity to detect discrepancies in the tone of voice that hinders the complete understanding of the messages received from the interlocutor and, finally, difficulties in the correct interpretation of non-verbal language in a generic way (gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

Social relations with parents

For parents, having a child with AD is an added complication to accepting and understanding the developmental changes experienced by the child during his or her development.

It is very difficult for parents to find a balance between the exercise of excessive control and overprotection when trying to promote the autonomy of their child, leaving everything that learning difficulties entail in the background. This problem causes a less tolerant, more critical and less empathetic or affective attitude that makes it very difficult for the child to develop emotionally.

Psychopedagogical intervention for learning difficulties

In order to achieve the two fundamental objectives set out for students presenting DA, which are aimed at improving the student’s emotional state and, in turn, their academic performance , a series of actions are proposed on a psycho-pedagogical level, structured in three consecutive stages :

First stage

At first a deep analysis must be carried out on which services the student will need to have available in the school context to compensate and work on the learning difficulties that he or she presents both at the level of establishing what type of special educational needs he or she needs, what specific intervention programme is going to be established according to his or her academic level and what specific strategies are going to be put into place by the teaching team to foster an adequate self-concept and self-esteem.

Second stage

Subsequently, it is known that contact and the establishment of direct collaboration with the family is indispensable , which must be totally committed to achieving coordinated work by all the parties involved. To this end, an initial psycho-education phase must be carried out by the team of professionals to help the family understand the nature of AD and what type of actions should be incorporated into their habits to favour an increasingly positive evolution of the progress made by the child (positive reinforcements and empathic attitude, establishment of clear routines, etc.).

On the other hand, it will also be useful to anticipate possible problems in order to determine the strategies to be implemented for their adequate resolution.

Third stage

Ultimately, work will be done on the empowerment of the child’s metacognitive capacity, where aspects such as awareness and acceptance of AD, recognition of their strengths and weaknesses, and an internal attributional style (locus of control) that allows them to actively control the achievement of successes with respect to previously established objectives will be worked on.

More specifically, the current lines of psychopedagogical intervention in AD are based on three aspects: the teaching of specific learning strategies (simplification of contents), the use of the constructivist perspective (methodology based on the Vigotskian theory on the area of proximal development, scaffolding and learning potential) and computer-assisted instruction.

By way of conclusion

As we have seen, the areas affected by the psychological development of children in the presence of an AD diagnosis are very diverse. Early detection and intervention by the main socializing agents (family and school) is essential to promote a positive evolution of the specific case. As in the majority of child psychological problems and/or deviations, cooperation between both parties has a very significant relevance in the course of such alteration.

On the other hand, with regard to the intervention , it is worth bearing in mind that not all measures should be focused exclusively on improving instrumental learning , since the presence of these usually leads to the development of emotional discomfort (reduced self-concept, feelings of inferiority, etc.), which should be addressed as a priority.

Bibliographic references:

  • Garcia, J.N.. (2001). Learning difficulties and psycho-pedagogical intervention. Barcelona: Ariel.
  • García, J. N. (1998) (3rd ed. rev.). Manual of learning difficulties. Madrid: Narcea.
  • González, R. and Valle, A. (1998). Affective-motivational characteristics of students with learning difficulties. In V. Santiuste and J.A. Beltrán (coords.): Dificultades de Aprendizaje, 261-277. Madrid: Síntesis.
  • Ortiz González, Ma R. (2004). Manual de Dificultades de Aprendizaje. Madrid: Pirámide.