Such relevant and famous authors as Burrhus F. Skinner, Julian B. Rotter and, above all, Albert Bandura contributed to the description of the process by which observational learning takes place, by which we learn by seeing how other people behave.

In this article we will describe what observational learning is based on the work of Bandura , whose contributions in this respect are better known as “social learning theory”. We will also talk about the four stages that make up this process: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.

What is observational learning?

The concept of “observational learning” is a bit ambiguous. Many authors identify it with the social learning described by Albert Bandura; this term is probably the most popular way of referring to this process in the scientific literature.

In turn, both the definition of social and observational learning are confused with others that are close to it, in particular vicarious learning, imitation and modeling. Nevertheless, it is possible to find differential nuances between the original scope of each of the terms, although with the passage of time the different conceptions have become homogeneous.

In this sense, we can include within observational learning any type of learning that takes place as a result of contemplating the behaviour of other living beings (since this is not a specific term for humans), as well as the consequences of these, that is, their contingency with the appearance of reinforcements and punishments.

The main feature of observational learning is that occurs without the need for the learner to obtain reinforcement : in this case information is obtained about the possible effects that a certain behaviour will have. However, reinforcement is necessary for the behaviour to be executed, as we will see a little later.

As for the rest of the terms we have mentioned, each of them highlights a specific feature of a broad and shared phenomenon. Thus, when we speak of “modelling” we are emphasizing the importance of the person acting as a behavioural model, while “social learning” refers to the inclusion of this person in the framework of socialization.

Bandura’s theory of social learning

In the 1960s, the Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura carried out various studies to analyse learning processes that could not be explained by traditional behavioural models (classical and operant conditioning), but required the use of variables of a social nature. From them he formulated his theory of social learning.

Previously authors like B. F. Skinner or J. B. Rotter had proposed models that attempted to explain observational learning, or other closely related concepts, through basic mechanisms such as reinforcement. However, the “cognitive revolution” contributed to the inclusion of non-observable variables in scientific psychology.

According to Bandura, one of the major weaknesses of the existing approaches at the time was the fact that they did not include social variables in the hypotheses on behavior acquisition. His theory is based on the idea that learning is a fundamentally cognitive process that is inseparable from the social framework in which it takes place.

Thus, Bandura proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, according to which when a living being carries out a learning process he is not simply a receiver of the events that happen in his environment, but there is a mutual influence between the context, the behaviors and cognitive variables such as expectations or motivation.

One of the most relevant contributions of Bandura’s work was that it showed that learning can take place without the need for the apprentice to obtain reinforcement. However, it is logical to observe that the model obtains rewards or punishments as a result of its behaviour, and this modulates the learning that takes place.

The 4 stages of this process

Albert Bandura conceptualized observational (or social) learning as a process composed of four stages that take place one after the other . Thus, this type of learning ranges from attention to the events that happen in our environment to the motivation that leads us to execute the behavior after having learned it by observation.

1. Attention

Attention is the cognitive function that allows us to perceive and understand the events that occur around us . If the person’s cognitive abilities are adequate and sufficient attentional resources are dedicated to observation, it will be easier to learn. Certain characteristics of the model, such as its prestige, have a notable influence on this process.

2. Retention

This stage of observational learning refers to the memorization of observed behavior. According to Bandura, retention can be based on both verbal and visual material, with verbal cognitive models being more suitable for complex learning, generally.

3. Reproduction

Following Bandura’s definition, we understand as “reproduction” the execution of the behavior that had been memorized; we can conceptualize this process as the creation of a scheme of action . The feedback we receive from other people significantly modulates the specific characteristics of behavioral reproduction.

4. Motivation

Even if we have learned a behavior perfectly, it is very unlikely that we will execute it if we do not have incentives to do so. Thus, the execution of the behavior depends mainly on the expectation of reinforcement ; it is in this step that, according to Bandura’s theory, the presence of a reinforcer is fundamental, and not in previous stages.

Bibliographic references:

  • Bandura, A. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
  • Rotter, J. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
  • Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.