To date, there is still no consensus on a concrete and universal definition of the concept of stress. Even so, there seems to be some agreement when it comes to defining it as the set of psychophysiological changes that occur in the body in response to a situation of overdemand, which mobilizes the activation of the organism.

If this situation perpetuates itself over time in excess, the organism ends up being damaged, since it is unable to maintain this level of activation permanently due to the overexertion it involves.

Thus, it is possible to differentiate between a punctual or positive stress response (which is adaptive and allows us to face the possible adversities of daily life) and a chronic stress response (which is the cause of certain alterations in the organism, both physical and psychological). Let’s see what the foundations of this phenomenon are.

Explaining Stress

Attempts to provide a theoretical explanation of the concept of stress have been very diverse. Below is the most accepted and the one that offers the most complete explanation at present: the Process Model of Stress .

This integrative model highlights the enormous complexity of the concept of stress, arguing that there are multiple variables that are related to each other in the response that the organism emits. As reflected in the following lines , up to seven types of factors can be differentiated that influence the way in which people emit this type of response .

Determining factors in the stress response

These are the situations and variables (contextual and psychological) that can cause a stressful response.

1. Psychosocial demands

This factor refers to external environmental stressors , both natural (e.g. temperature) and artificial (pollution) as well as psychosocial (interpersonal relationships). Regarding the latter, it has been observed that its association with a low socioeconomic status can lead to the experience of less social support.

2. Cognitive evaluation

A person’s cognitive assessment of the situation also influences the stress reaction. Specifically, five situational aspects are usually assessed when a person is faced with a stressful event:

  • The type of threat posed by the demand: loss, danger or challenge.
  • The valency that the person gives to the threat: the valuation as something positive or negative.
  • The dependence-independence of the person’s actions to meet the demand.
  • The predictability : whether the demand is expected or not
  • The controllability : whether or not the person perceives that he/she can control the demand.

3. Physiological stress response

When a stress response occurs in the body a series of physiological changes occur that allow the person to increase his or her alertness in reaction to the stress . Let’s see some examples in the proposal of Olivares and Méndez.

Physiological changes Benefits
Increased heart rate and blood pressure

More blood is pumped to the brain, lungs, arms and legs, providing more fuel for the brain.

Increased breathing.

Breathing becomes deeper and faster to deliver more oxygen to the muscles.

Muscle tension.

Muscles are tightened, preparing for action.

Discharge of carbohydrates and lipids into the bloodstream.

It provides fuel for quick energy.

Increased perspiration.

Refrigerates excess muscle heat.

Release of coagulation factors.

Faster coagulation of wounds, resulting in blood loss.

Delayed digestion.

Increased blood supply to the brain and muscles

On the other hand, simultaneously, there are also certain modifications in the person on an emotional level. In the first place, a sensation of emotional discomfort appears which is called distress , which basically consists of a set of emotions of a negative nature such as anxiety, anger, fear, etc.

The emotional expression linked to the stress response depends on the person’s assessment of the situation. Thus, the specific circumstances of the situation mark both the thoughts that one has in response to the demand and the feelings that are subsequently aroused.

4. Coping

On a practical level, it is one of the most important elements of the scheme, since it will depend on the coping style that is put in place that both cognitive and emotional distress produced by the external stressor can be diminished.

The coping style refers to the general way of thinking and acting of the person in a more or less stable way when faced with the various stressful situations of his/her daily life. Coping depends on the person’s belief in whether or not he or she can do something to change the situation.

According to the proposal of Lazarus and Folkman, the multiple forms of coping can be included within the following typologies:


Dimension
Description
Confrontation

Direct actions directed at the situation, for example, expressing anger towards the person causing the problem.

Distance

Trying to forget about the problem, refusing to take it seriously.

Self-control

Save the trouble for yourself.

Seeking social support

Ask a friend for advice or help, talk to someone who can do something specific.

Accepting responsibility

Apologize, criticize yourself.

Running away or avoiding

Wait for a miracle to happen, avoid contact with people.

Problem-solving planning

Establish an action plan and follow it.

Positive re-evaluation

Assign a more positive meaning to the situation, for example: “Experience teaches, there are good people”, etc.

These authors have classified these coping styles into two categories: problem-oriented style (Confrontation and Problem-Solving Planning) and emotion-oriented style (the remaining six types). Several studies have shown that people with higher rates of depression, anxiety and emotional distress often practice emotion-oriented styles.

Thus, it is concluded that, at an emotional level, the latter do not become adaptive and satisfactory ways of coping with stress . On the contrary, it seems to be demonstrated that the establishment of a well-founded plan of action and the subsequent implementation of all the steps that make it up is a more effective methodology of personal psychological coping.

5. Personal characteristics

Experts have noted that certain personality traits can influence the type of reaction a person expresses to stress.

Hardiness

Kobasa has described the concept of Hardiness as a protective factor against stress. Hardiness consists of three elements: commitment (believing and recognising one’s own values), challenge (valuing situations as a challenge rather than, for example, as a threat) and control (feeling in control of the situation).

Sense of coherence

Antonovsky, similarly to Kobasa, has defined this phenomenon as a stable disposition of personality that serves as a resource for coping with stress, as a protective factor of the person . It is composed of comprehensibility (cognitive control over the environment), handling (to what degree the person considers that he or she has the resources to face the situation) and significance (assessment of the situation as a challenge and whether it is worth facing it).

In addition, other personality traits have been found to be related to the type of reaction to stress, such as the following:

  • People with a neurotic tendency (anxious and emotionally unstable) tend to value the situation more threateningly than other groups with less variable emotional functioning.
  • People with a high level of hostility tend to experience anger and high cardiovascular reactivity much more frequently than the rest of the population.
  • People with repressive style may have their immune response inhibited.
  • Optimistic people, with high self-esteem, locus of internal control (high perception that the person has about the capacity that the person has to control the environment) and Hardiness are associated with an adequate or “problem oriented” coping style.

6. Type of stress reaction

This concept has been proposed by a group of researchers (Eysenck, Grossarth and Maticek) who wanted to explain the causes that produce coronary heart disease and cancer .

It consists of a classification that differentiates six types of personal characteristics that tend to be associated with the development of certain physical diseases. More specifically, the following classification looks at the six types and the disease to which they are related:


TYPE
Disorder or disease
1

Propensity to cancer: Conformist dependence, inhibition to establish interpersonal intimacy

2

Propensity to coronary heart disease: Anger reactions, chronic irritating aggression. Hyperexcitation.

3

Hysteric: Protection against 1 and 2. Expression of alternate responses between 1 and 2.

4

Healthy: Protector against diseases in general. Autonomous behavior. Appropriate and realistic coping.

5

Rational/Anti-emotional: Propensity to depression and cancer. Suppression of emotional expression.

6

Antisocial: Psychopathic profile. Propensity to drug addiction.

7. Social characteristics

One of the main elements that relates social characteristics and the stress response is social support . More specifically, we have studied the evidence of the influence of variables of this phenomenon, such as the direction (whether it is provided or received), the disposition (quantity and quality), the description/evaluation made by the person of the support perceived, the content (emotional, instrumental, informative or evaluative) and the social networks as a source of social support.

Numerous research studies highlight the importance of social support in maintaining good physical and mental health. Studies show that social support favours health by inhibiting the onset of the illness (reducing the impact of stress) or facilitating recovery from it (reinforcing the person’s capacity to confront the illness). On the other hand, it should be noted that the absence of social support can have very negative consequences , since its lack becomes a very important risk factor for the subsequent development of depression.

For example, married people who enjoy a healthy marriage are at significantly less risk than those who are single, divorced or married in a conflicting marriage.

8. Health status

Most of the factors that have been shown so far (cognitive assessment of the situation, coping style, personal characteristics, etc.) also are related to the person’s physical health status .

It has been observed, for example, that a very negative assessment of the event or an erroneous coping style leads to a decrease in the body’s immune response (a reduction in the body’s defences against external pathogens), thus increasing vulnerability to certain diseases associated with the immune system (cancer, infections, etc.).

By way of conclusion

Since the beginning of the research that has tried to shed some light on the concept of stress and the factors that explain it, science has managed to highlight the enormous complexity associated with this phenomenon . Therefore, the idea that there is only one element that determines the appearance of this type of symptomatology so present in today’s society is discarded.

Therefore, it is essential to banish the idea that pathological stress (punctual stress, as explained in the article, does not present adverse psychological consequences) is derived exclusively from the external environment or from situations alien to the person.

In short, the individual himself also plays a very relevant role in the type of experience and how he acts to overcome perceived daily stress.

Bibliographic references:

  • Amigo, I, Fernández, C. and Pérez, M. (2009). Manual of health psychology. Madrid: Pirámide.
  • Belloch, A., Sandín, B. and Ramos, F. (2008). Manual of psychopathology. Revised edition (Vol I and II). Madrid. McGraw Hill.
  • Labrador, F. J. (2008). Behavior modification techniques. Madrid: Pirámide.
  • Olivares, J. Y Mendez, F. X. (2008). Behavior modification techniques. Madrid: Biblioteca nueva.